Digital Extremism: How Misinformation and Disinformation Fuel Online Radicalization

Background

When Americans consider domestic terrorism, they often associate it with foreign-inspired groups such as ISIS. However, an equally significant and growing threat has emerged within the nation's borders—right-wing extremism. As early as 2002, the FBI formally acknowledged this danger, with Executive Assistant Director Dale L. Watson testifying before the Senate that right-wing extremism had surpassed left-wing terrorism as the most pressing domestic terrorist threat (Watson, 2002). 

Figure 1 illustrates that from 2013 to 2021, right-wing extremism was responsible for 333 of the 444 extremist-related killings in the United States (ADL, 2023). These attacks underscore the growing threat that domestic terrorism poses to national security, with right-wing extremists not only organizing and mobilizing their efforts but also going so far as to livestream their killings on platforms like Facebook Live, highlighting the alarming normalization of violence in the digital age (Mac et al., 2022). While domestic extremist-related killings have decreased in recent years, with 17 reported in 2023 compared to 27 in 2022 and 35 in 2021, this follows a previous five-year span (2015-2019) during which extremist-related murders ranged from 47 to 79 per year. 

My research traced the development of right-wing extremism from the Ku Klux Klan during the Civil Rights era to modern online extremist networks. It examines the ideologies that fuel these movements, the role of social media in recruitment and radicalization, and the impact of these activities on individuals and communities. Understanding this issue is crucial for understanding the motivations of individuals involved in extremism and developing effective strategies to counter both radicalization and the actions of those already radicalized. This project aims to provide insights into the evolving nature of domestic terrorism and extremism, and it aims to inform policy, research, and interventions to mitigate these risks.

Methods

Information for this review was gathered from articles, peer-reviewed scholarly articles and government reports focusing on terrorism, radicalization, and digital platforms.

Additionally, I conducted observations of right-wing extremist groups on various social media platforms, including Instagram, Rumble, 4chan, Truth Social, Gab, Reddit, Discord, Telegram, Facebook, and X.

To explore more extreme ideologies, I accessed encrypted spaces on Telegram, where more radical discussions take place. This approach provided a better understanding of how both mainstream social media and more secluded radical platforms contribute to recruitment and radicalization.

Digital Extremism

The rise of the internet and social media platforms has fueled a new wave of domestic terrorism in the form of right-wing extremism, with extremist violence in the United States largely traced to the influence of these platforms, which have become breeding grounds for such groups. Groups have taken advantage of platforms like Telegram and Gab, as well as more widely used apps like Facebook and Twitter, to spread their ideology, recruit members, and fuel hatred toward marginalized communities, including LGBTQ+ individuals, immigrants, and religious minorities. Social media not only facilitates the rapid dissemination of extremist ideas but also creates echo chambers where individuals can be radicalized, often leading to violent actions.

In 2023, there was shooting spree in Jacksonville, Florida, where a white supremacist killed three people in a predominantly Black neighborhood, exemplifying the dangerous potential of this online radicalization. The perpetrator was inspired by other white supremacist killers, drawing on their hateful manifestos to inform his own violent plans. Similarly, in Lake Arrowhead, California, in 2023, a shooting of a shop owner sparked by an argument over a Pride flag highlights the direct connection between online far-right platforms and real-world violence. The perpetrator frequently posted anti-LGBTQ+ messages and conspiracy theories on Gab, a platform known for users having far-right ideologies (ADL, 2023). 

The tragic events in Jacksonville and Lake Arrowhead highlight the dangerous consequences of online radicalization. These cases exemplify how extremist ideologies can be amplified and spread through digital platforms, leading to real-world violence. To better understand the motivations of individuals involved in such acts, it is helpful to consider the four-stage model of terrorist mindsets which is represented in Figure 2. The four-stage model of terrorist mindsets outlines ideological radicalization, starting with individuals recognizing a grievance and framing it as an injustice ("It's not right" and "It's not fair"). They then blame a specific target for this perceived injustice ("It's your fault") and dehumanize that target ("You're evil"), justifying aggression. While this model effectively describes radicalization, it does not predict when individuals will resort to indiscriminate political violence (CIDOB, 2016)

Pathways to Extremism

Hoffman (2006) views radicalization as a top-down process orchestrated by organizations, emphasizing the significant role of charismatic leaders and structured groups in manipulating individuals through propaganda and indoctrination. In this perspective, extremist groups actively recruit and influence individuals, shaping their beliefs and motivations to align with the group's ideology. Smith (2018) reinforces this viewpoint by highlighting the role of these radical online group in facilitating radicalization, particularly in online environments where extremist content can be easily disseminated and amplified.

In addition to Hoffman’s top-down model, a scholars mention a bottom-up process of radicalization also exists, where individuals seek out extremist content independently. This self-radicalization occurs when people are exposed to misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies on platforms like Telegram, 4chan, and Reddit. These individuals often gravitate toward communities that validate their grievances and reinforce their growing extremist views (Binder & Kenyon, 2022).

The relative nature of what is considered "extreme" makes identifying extremism challenging, as societal context can shift the benchmarks for what is deemed "normal" or "mainstream." Most scholars recognize that extremism encompasses both cognitive radicalization (beliefs) and behavioral radicalization (actions). Someone may hold extreme views without acting on them. However, extremists who do act on their objectives—particularly those from right-wing groups— are terrorists, as their violent actions are intended to intimidate or coerce civilians or influence government actions through force. These groups, responsible for the majority of domestic extremist killings in recent years, represent a serious threat to national security and must be stopped to prevent further violence and destabilization.

Radicalization

• Focus: The process of adopting extremist beliefs

• Intent: Shift towards radical beliefs, often through exposure to propaganda

• Goals: Align personal identity with extremist or violent ideology

• Methods: Online radicalization, social isolation, extremist recruitment

• Examples: Individuals radicalized by ISIS or right-wing extremist groups through social media channels

Extremism

• Focus: Advocating for extreme beliefs and actions

• Intent: Advocate for extreme ideas without compromise

• Goals: Drastic societal or political change

• Methods: Protests, recruitment, advocacy for radical change

• Examples: White supremacists pushing racial purity or far-right groups advocating for authoritarianism

Terrorism

• Focus: Using violence for political or ideological purposes

• Intent: Instill fear and achieve political goals through mass violence

• Goals: Influence or overthrow governments, spread terror

• Methods: Bombings, shootings, kidnappings, Hijackings, violent acts

• Examples: Mass killing attacks by ISIS, al- Qaeda, white supremacist. Jan 6th

Conlcusions on the Role of Platforms in Radicalization

The review identified clear patterns in the evolution of right-wing extremism in the U.S., with digital platforms playing a significant role in the radicalization and recruitment process. Social media platforms like Instagram, Reddit, and Facebook serve as entry points for new members, where extremist content is widely accessible, often disguised as memes or news.

These spaces are littered with misinformation and disinformation, strategically introduced to manipulate vulnerable individuals. The facilitators of these extremist networks purposefully infect members with false information to further radicalize them, helping them feel included in a group that shares their grievances. Manipulated video clips are rampant, with extremists taking advantage of advances in clip editing and AI technologies to misrepresent individuals or take content out of context. This fosters a deep sense of anger, with members of these spaces truly believing they are engaged in a fight for their lives.

Conclusions on the Implications for Counteracting Radicalization

More extreme discussions take place on encrypted platforms like Telegram, where violent ideologies and conspiracy theories spread unchecked. As users shift to these platforms, they become more deeply entrenched in extremist beliefs. Additionally, extremist groups leverage the viral nature of social media to amplify their messages, targeting vulnerable individuals through algorithm-driven content recommendations. The more outrageous the topic, the greater the engagement it garners, as seen with figures like Marjorie Taylor Greene, whose presence in these spaces amplifies engagement with extremist narratives. These accounts generate substantial interaction, feeding into a cycle of misinformation and radicalization.

Hoffman’s theory of top-down radicalization is evident here, as leaders and structured groups manipulate individuals through propaganda. Those acting on extremist objectives should be classified as terrorists, contributing to domestic terrorism.

This review has illuminated the primary emotional appeals and disinformation tactics used by right  wing extremist groups in their online content. These groups adeptly manipulate fear, anger, and a sense of belonging to attract and retain followers, demonstrating how emotional resonance can drive radicalization. The prevalence of misinformation further complicates the landscape, enabling these groups to distort realities and justify their ideologies.

Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing effective counter-strategies. By dissecting the communication methods employed by extremist groups, we can create informed interventions that challenge their narratives and disrupt their recruitment efforts. To effectively counteract extremism, it is crucial to promote media literacy, helping individuals critically evaluate the information they encounter online. Additionally, fostering open dialogue in communities can create environments where extremist narratives are less likely to thrive. Finally, engaging with technology companies to create better content moderation policies can help limit the spread of harmful ideologies. Through a multi-faceted approach, we can build resilience against radicalization and work towards a safer society.

Future Directions

My goal is to educate the public about the nuances of online radicalization and develop effective strategies to mitigate its impact. I plan to continue my research in this field, particularly examining the effects of social media and media narratives on shaping public opinion—not just in the United States, but globally. This exploration will allow for a deeper understanding of how various platforms influence perceptions and ideologies, ultimately contributing to more comprehensive counter-radicalization strategies. I am committed to finding ways to counter radicalization in individuals who are already affected and to prevent others from becoming radicalized.

References

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